What Is a Style Guide?

While proofreading and editing, you will often need to use a style guide. A style guide is a set of standardized guidelines for writing, formatting, and editing documents (or other types of contents). Style guides can include:

• Guidelines for grammar and punctuation usage
• Preferred spellings and word choices
• Descriptions of the desired voice and tone
• Instructions for formatting and design layout
• Expectations on adherence to (or divergence from) official style guides (e.g., APA, Chicago)

Style guides are important because they ensure consistency. If an individual or organization is producing multiple documents or pieces of content, they typically want them to be consistent and coherent.

What Is a Style Sheet?

Style sheets include much of the same information that style guides do and are also made to ensure consistency. However, they are much more concise.

Style guides can be many pages long and cover any issue that might come up when writing or editing a wide range of documents.

A style sheet is often created for a specific document or set of documents. The longer the work becomes, the more important it is that it has its own style sheet. 

A style sheet can be created by the original author, but it is often made by the first editor that works on the document to outline choices they made that need to be adhered to.

When Do I Need to Create a Style Sheet?

If a client specifies using a style guide (e.g., the AP Stylebook or CMoS), you can check it when proofreading should you come across any contentious stylistic issues. In other cases, a client may provide an in-house style sheet covering the same information.

However, if a client does not provide a style sheet, you may need to create one.

This isn’t necessary for shorter, one-off documents, as you should be able to identify stylistic preferences and inconsistencies by eye (and you can resolve any ambiguities with a comment or email). But you should create your own style sheet when:

1. Proofreading a very long document (e.g., a novel manuscript or PhD dissertation) where you may need to ensure consistency across dozens or hundreds of pages
2. Working regularly for one client who wants to ensure consistency across documents.

But what should you include in a proofreading style sheet? Let’s take a look.

What to Include in a Proofreading Style Sheet

The idea of a style sheet is to ensure consistency within a document or set of documents by noting down any stylistic preferences. And while the exact content of a style sheet will depend on the client and/or document in question, it will usually cover things such as the following.

Linguistic Preferences

• English dialect (e.g., British English, American English)
• General writing style (e.g., academic, formal, informal)
• Spelling preferences (e.g., ebook or e-book)
• Preferred terminology or vocabulary choices
• Favored abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms
• Whether to write numbers as words or numerals
• Time and date formats

Punctuation and Capitalization

• Comma usage, including whether to use the Oxford comma
• Use of hyphens, en dashes, and em dashes
• Use of ‘single’ or “double” quotation marks
• Spacing of ellipses (i.e., spaced or unspaced)
• Capitalization preferences (e.g., sentence case or title case)

Formatting and Layout Issues

• Preferred font size and typeface
• Use of bold, italics, and underlining
• Heading and subheading styles
• Indentation and line breaks
• How to begin new chapters and sections
• Page numbering style and consistency
• Use of page footers and headers
• Margins and page orientation
• Presentation of images and other non-textual elements

Not all these will be relevant to every document, so keep your style sheet streamlined by only including necessary information. Likewise, don’t worry about basic rules of grammar or punctuation (e.g., capitalizing proper nouns); focus on what makes your client’s style unique.

How to Structure a Style Sheet

When you know what your style sheet will include, break it down into sections for easy reference. Each section should have a clear heading and cover one aspect of the document’s style: one section for linguistic preferences, one for punctuation, one for formatting, etc.

This will make the style sheet easier to use for yourself, the client, and any other editors who are working on the same project (e.g., if a company hires several editors to work on different documents but needs to ensure consistency across all written content).

Specialist Style Sheets: Academic and Creative Writing

The list above covers general issues that any style sheet might include. However, there are other things that you may need to cover, especially with academic or creative writing.

For academic writing, for instance, you might also need to include:

• Information on your client’s chosen referencing style
• Technical terminology where precision is important
• Labeling and presentation of figures, tables, and charts
• How to format the title page, list of contents, appendices, etc.

For fiction or narrative non-fiction, meanwhile, you may need to cover:

• Character names and key details
• Locations, including details about geography and buildings
• Major plot points and a timeline of events
• Non-standard spellings or slang, especially in dialogue
• How to present characters’ speech and thoughts

As with any style sheet, though, the key is tailoring its content to your client’s requirements.

Template Style Sheets

If you’re not sure how to create a style sheet, have no fear! We have template style sheets available to download for: 

• Fiction
• Non-fiction
• Business writing
• Academic writing

Become a Proofreader with Knowadays

If you’d like to learn more about proofreading, try our Becoming A Proofreader course. It covers everything you need to know to start a career as a freelance proofreader! Our Becoming An Editor course can take your skills to the next level, teaching you all about copy editing, line editing, and comprehensive editing on a wide range of document types.

And if you pass both the Becoming A Proofreader and Becoming An Editor courses with scores of 80% or more, you can benefit from our work guarantee with our partner company, Proofed. Get in touch today to find out more!

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In this blog post we’re going to explain:

• The difference between a resume and a CV
• The three most common types of resumes (chronological, functional, and combination) 
• How to proofread resumes and CVs

What Is the Difference Between a Resume and a CV?

In the USA, many people distinguish between a resume and a CV as follows:

• A resume is a short (1–2 pages) summary of a person’s work experience, skills, and qualifications, ideally curated to fit the job for which they are applying.
• A CV (or curriculum vitae) presents a detailed account of a person’s professional and academic achievements, which may run to several pages.

However, this is not a universal distinction. People in the UK and other parts of Europe tend to prefer CV for both types of documents. In Australia and South Africa, the terms resume and CV are often used interchangeably.

Different fields may also have their own requirements for resumes and CVs. An academic CV, for instance, is typically longer and more detailed than a standard resume or CV.

As such, it is worth checking what your client is hoping to achieve with their resume or CV before you start proofreading it. You can then tailor your edits to match their requirements.

What Are the Different Types of Resumes?

Resumes and CVs come in three main types:

• Chronological
• Functional
• Combination

Each of these presents information in a slightly different way, so let’s look at how they work.

What Is a Chronological Resume?

A chronological resume presents a person’s work experience and qualifications in reverse chronological order (i.e., starting with the most recent and working back). It will usually include:

• The person’s name and contact details, plus a short personal statement or profile
• Their professional roles and achievements so far, including dates of employment
• Educational achievements and other qualifications
• Other interests or skills relevant to the role
• If required, references and their contact details

The focus here is on continuity and progress. This makes a chronological resume ideal for people who are applying for a new role in the industry they already work in.

Here are some examples of a chronological resume.

What Is a Functional Resume?

A functional resume focuses on skills and expertise. It would usually include:

• The person’s name, contact details, and personal statement
• A list of key skills, starting with the most important, plus examples of how they have been implemented in a professional context
• Basic details of previous job roles and employers
• Educational achievements and other qualifications
• Relevant interests and hobbies
• If required, references and their contact details

Functional resumes focus on skills more than experience. This makes them useful for people who are seeking a career change or who have a gap in their work history.

Here are some examples of a functional resume.

What Is a Combination Resume?

Finally, a combination resume or CV combines elements of both the above. Typically, this takes the form of a list of skills plus a detailed work history. But the layout and content of a combination resume can vary a lot depending on what its author wants to emphasize.

Here are some examples of a combination resume.

How to Proofread Resumes and CVs

A few factors to keep in mind when proofreading resumes and CVs include:

• Length – A good resume is typically around one or two pages long (recruiters are busy, so they often ignore longer resumes). Unless your client is preparing a full curriculum vitae, you may need to make minor edits or suggest cuts to keep their resume concise.
• Clarity – As well as making sure the text itself is clear, you may need to offer advice on presentation to ensure that your client’s resume is easy to navigate. Key factors include using headings effectively and making sure text isn’t too small or cramped to read.
• Tone – The tone and vocabulary of a resume or CV should be professional throughout. As such, you may need to make minor changes to ensure this.
• Consistency with cover letter – If you are proofreading a resume and a cover letter for the same client, check that the information is consistent. You may also want to advise moving details from the resume to the cover letter if the former is too long.

Most importantly, of course, you will need to make sure your client’s resume is error free. Mistakes at this point won’t make a great first impression on potential employers.

Becoming A Proofreader

Did you know that we offer a free trial of our Becoming A Proofreader course? Sign up today to find out how it works and start your journey toward a career in freelance proofreading!

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If you’re not sure how to cite a play by Shakespeare accurately, don’t worry! In this blog post, we’ll set out the key rules for citing Shakespeare’s plays in some of the major referencing systems:

• MLA 
• APA 
• Chicago 
• MHRA 

Keep reading to learn more.

How to Cite Shakespeare in MLA Style

MLA style recommends citing Shakespeare’s plays using act, scene, and line numbers rather than standard page numbers. For example:

A Midsummer Night’s Dream addresses love early on (Shakespeare 1.1.234–235).

However, if your client has cited more than one of Shakespeare’s plays, they will need to replace the author’s name with the source title. This is because MLA referencing doesn’t use a date of publication in citations, so the title helps readers distinguish between sources by the same author.

In addition, for Shakespeare’s plays, MLA style suggests a series of standard abbreviations for use in citations. Your client should use these rather than shortening titles themselves:

Shakespeare touched on this theme many times (e.g., MND 1.1.234–235; TN 1.1.1; Rom. 1.1.181), suggesting the nature of love was a point of fascination for him.

The passage above, for example, cites A Midsummer Night’s Dream (MND), Twelfth Night (TN), and Romeo and Juliet (Rom.), with the abbreviations keeping the citations succinct.

Meanwhile, the format for Shakespeare’s plays in an MLA “Works Cited” list will depend on how your client accessed the source (e.g., online or a print anthology). However, entries should always include full publication details for the version cited in the document.

How to Cite Shakespeare in APA Style

APA referencing uses its author–date citations when citing Shakespeare. The main issue to look out for is the date, which should include two dates separated by a forward slash:

Romeo and Juliet (Shakespeare, 1597/2021) is the most famous love story ever written.

The first year here (1597) refers to the year the play was originally published. The second (2021) is the year of publication for the specific edition referenced. In this respect, Shakespeare plays follow the standard rules for reprinted works in APA referencing.

The other key point relates to quotations and paraphrases from Shakespeare plays, which should be cited with act, scene, and line numbers rather than page numbers:

It is at this point we encounter the famous line from the balcony scene: “O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?” (Shakespeare, 1597/2021, 2.2.35).

This shows that the quote comes from act 2, scene 2, line 35 of Romeo and Juliet.

In an APA reference list, meanwhile, Shakespeare plays are typically cited as reprinted books (i.e., with an original date of publication at the end of the reference). Make sure to check your client includes the edition cited, as line numbers can vary between versions.

How to Cite Shakespeare in Chicago Style

Chicago style varies depending on the version of this system used (i.e., footnote citations or parenthetical author–date citations). However, there are two things that always apply:

• The Chicago Manual of Style suggests using act, scene, and line numbers when citing classic English plays, including Shakespeare plays.
• Writers should include the edition of the text used for clarity on line numbers.

In the footnote version of Chicago referencing, then, the first footnote might look like this:

1. William Shakespeare, The Tempest, ed. Alden T. Vaughan and Virginia Mason Vaughan (London: Bloomsbury, 2011), 1.1.20–26. References are to act, scene, and line.

Here, for example, the citation is for lines 20 to 26 in act 1, scene 1 of The Tempest. The full publication information and the sentence “References are to act, scene, and line” would be only required on the first reference, though: subsequent citations can typically be shortened.

A Chicago author–date citation of the same passage, meanwhile, would look like this:

We see this early on in The Tempest (Shakespeare 2011, 1.1.20–26).

Both versions of Chicago style also require the full publication details for the version cited in the bibliography/reference list, so make sure to check if this information is present.

How to Cite Shakespeare in MHRA Style

In the MHRA referencing system, Shakespeare’s plays should be cited using the guidelines for citing plays and other long works (i.e., classic works with established subdivisions such as scenes, books, cantos, and similar). In practice, this means:

• The edition used should be included in the first footnote citation.
• Citations should include act, scene, and line numbers (not page numbers).
• Act numbers should be given in Roman numbers (small capitals).
• Scenes and line numbers should be given in Arabic numerals.

In practice, then, the first citation of a Shakespeare play would look like this:

1. William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice, ed. by Peter Holland (London: Penguin Classics, 2015), ɪɪ. 3. 15.

For subsequent citations of the same play, MHRA suggests shortening the footnote to just the author’s name and the pinpoint citation (still given with act, scene, and line numbers):

2. Shakespeare, ᴠ. 1. 18–25.

However, if there could be doubt about the play in question (e.g., if your client is citing more than one Shakespeare play in a single document), footnotes should give the play name instead:

1. William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice, ed. by Peter Holland (London: Penguin Classics, 2015), ɪɪ. 3. 15.

2. William Shakespeare, The Tempest, ed. by Alden T. Vaughan and Virginia Mason Vaughan (London: Bloomsbury, 2011), ɪ. 1. 20–26.

3. The Merchant of Venice, ᴠ. 1. 18–25.

In the bibliography entry, meanwhile, your client should include the full publication details.

Reference Variations

We’ve offered some brief guidelines on how to present Shakespeare plays in reference lists for the systems above, but this can depend on how your client has accessed the source.

For example, a student using APA referencing might access a Shakespeare play online and reference it as a website. As long as all the relevant source information is given, this is usually fine. Your role will be to check references for clarity and consistency.

Nevertheless, if you’re not sure about the reference format for a Shakespeare play in a specific system, make sure to look it up (either online or in the relevant style guide).

Becoming A Proofreader

For more information about proofreading academic writing and referencing styles, try the Becoming A Proofreader course. Sign up for a free trial today to find out more.

The post A Guide to Citing Shakespeare in Academic Writing appeared first on Knowadays.

• What sic means
• How and when to use it
• The alternatives to using sic
• How to proofread documents with quotations

Read on to learn more about using sic in quotations.

What Does Sic Mean?

Sic is short for the Latin phrase sic erat scriptum, which means thus it was written. As this suggests, people use sic to show that a quote has been reproduced exactly from the source – including any spelling and grammatical errors and non-standard spellings.

How and When to Use Sic (with Examples)

There are several ways that you can use sic in a quotation:

1. To show that you’ve copied an error in a quotation from the original text (rather than introducing it accidentally). 

This is the most commonly used version of sic. You simply put sic in square brackets after the word that is misspelled. For instance: 

They started there [sic] company in 1992.

Here, we have added sic in square brackets to show that we know there is incorrect. If we didn’t do this, a reader might think we’ve misquoted the source and introduced an error.

1. For archaic or dialect spellings that could be interpreted as errors.

UK and US English spell certain words differently, so you can use sic to indicate this. For example: 

The best flavour [sic] of ice cream is chocolate.

If you’re using an older text, some of the words may have older versions of spellings, and you can use sic to indicate this. For instance: 

Shakesper [sic] is the greatest playwright of all time.

1. To show irony or poke fun at the original writer.

Although this is less common, some writers use sic to indicate irony in a text or tease the original writer. This use is similar to using scare quotes. For example: 

The Titanic is unsinkable [sic].

Alternatives to Using Sic

Writers commonly use sic to show that they have reproduced the text as it was written in the original document. But sic isn’t the only way to do this. In fact, there are three other ways:

1. Paraphrase

Paraphrasing means to write the information in your own words. This means that you would remove the need for the word sic in your writing. Just be sure to properly reference the original text to avoid plagiarism. 

1. Replace

You can just replace the incorrectly written word with the correct spelling in square brackets:

Go over [there].

This is cleaner but not always appropriate. For instance, if you’re writing about how spelling has changed over time, it would be more appropriate to show the incorrect spelling and use sic.

1. Recte

Recte means rightly in Latin and can replace sic. Recte is usually used with the correctly spelled word: 

Go over their [recte there].

Proofreading Documents with Quotation

As a proofreader, you will not need to add sic to a quotation if you spot an error. After all, unless you have the quoted source to hand, you won’t know whether the error was in the original version. But you may need to:

• Make corrections or leave a comment if you see sic being misused.
• Suggest alternative ways to address errors in quotations.

This last point is key, as sic is most useful when an author needs to preserve an error in quoted text (e.g. if they’re analysing typos in a body of writing).

In other cases, it would be simpler for the author to correct the error. This may involve marking the correction with square brackets to indicate the change:

They started [their] company in 1992.

However, different style guides have different rules for how to treat typos in quotations, so you may also want to check your client’s chosen style guide on this matter.

Style Guides on Sic

As mentioned above, different style guides have different rules on how to approach errors in quotations. And this includes how they use the word sic. To help you out, then, we’ve compiled a list of what a few major style guides say:

• The AMA style guide suggests using sic in square brackets to indicate a spelling or grammar error in a quotation, but not typically for archaic or obsolete spellings.
• APA style involves using sic (italicised and in square brackets) to indicate a typo in a quotation, but it does not use it for archaic or regional spellings.
• The Associated Press Stylebook suggests paraphrasing text that contains spelling or grammar errors rather than quoting it exactly.
• The Chicago Manual of Style says to use sic (italicised and in square brackets) to draw attention to an error in a quotation. However, unless it is important to preserve the error, it is better to simply correct minor errors in quoted text.
• MLA style suggests using sic (italicised and in square brackets) to highlight spelling or grammar errors in quoted text.

For more information on how to proofread documents that contain quotations, see our Becoming A Proofreader course (in particular the academic proofreading module).

Becoming A Proofreader

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In this blog post, we’ll show you how to capitalize titles by focusing on the four common styles of title capitalization:

• Title case, which capitalizes the first letter of certain words
• Sentence case, in which you capitalize titles as though they’re sentences
• Initial case, where you capitalize the first letter of every word
• All caps, where you capitalize the entire title

After that, we’ll also look at the rules that APA, Chicago, MLA, and AP style, respectively, recommend.

What Is Title Case?

In title case (or headline style), you’ll need to capitalize the first letter of the following:

• The first word in the title or subtitle(s)
• Nouns, noun phrases, and pronouns
• Verbs and all words in verb phrases
• Adverbs and adjectives

You can see an example of this style below:

Note that the length of a word does not matter here: Even though it’s only two letters long, we capitalize Is because it’s a verb, but we don’t capitalize the prepositions at and in or the conjunction the. Whether to capitalize a word simply depends on the word type.

What Is Sentence Case?

Sentence case (or sentence style) treats titles like sentences. This means you should only capitalize the following:

• The first word in a title or subtitle
• All the letters in an acronym or initialism
• The first letter in proper nouns

In other words, you capitalize a word if you would usually capitalize it in a sentence.

If we return to our example title from above, we would write it like this:

Here, the only capitalized words are A, Why (the first words in the title and subtitle, respectively), FBI (a proper noun and an initialism), and America (a proper noun).

What Is Initial Case?

In initial case, you capitalize the first letter of every word in titles and subtitles. For instance:

This is fairly rare, but some people prefer it for its simplicity.

What Is All Caps?

One more way of writing titles is to capitalize everything. We call this all caps:

Some people also mix all caps with another style, using small caps for lowercase letters:

These styles are very striking, so they’re especially common in marketing copy. However, you will also find them in certain titles of books, journal articles, and elsewhere.

Style Guide Rules on Title Capitalization

Most style guides and sheets will advise on how to capitalize headings, so make sure to check whether your client is using one. Most guides will also stick with one of the styles we’ve outlined above, but you’ll find some variations among them.

Let’s review some well-known examples.

How to Capitalize a Title in APA Style

APA uses both title case (for titles in the main body of a document) and sentence case (for titles in reference lists). In addition, when using title case, APA capitalizes all words of four or more letters, including conjunctions and prepositions.

Title case: Murder Most Horrid: A Stud of Crime Rates in America
Sentence case: Crime prevention: A methodological approach for police officers

How to Capitalize a Title in Chicago Style

The Chicago Manual of Style recommends using title case, wherein you capitalize the first letter of the first word and all nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. It also suggests capitalizing all conjunctions other than and, but, for, or, and nor:

An In-Depth Study of Utensils and Their Efficacy When Eating Pizza

How to Capitalize a Title in MLA Style

MLA style uses a title case system, but it also recommends capitalizing any word of four or more letters, including conjunctions and prepositions:

Ears in the Water: Can Dolphins Understand Us?

How to Capitalize a Title in AP Style

The AP Stylebook suggests using title case for headings and subheadings and requires capitalization of all words three or more letters long:

Send Me an Angel: Examining the Music of Blind Willie McTell

Becoming a Proofreader or Editor

If you’re interested in learning more about writing titles properly and exploring the various capitalization styles, consider checking out our Becoming A Proofreader and Becoming An Editor courses.

These courses offer a variety of learning modules that will teach you even more than capitalization. They cover everything you need to know about academic proofreading and editing.

If you’re interested, check our free trial today.

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This blog post will explore the difference between affect and effect and help you know which one to use – whether you’re editing, proofreading, or writing.

What’s the Difference Between Affect and Effect?

To put it simply, affect is usually a verb that means “to impact or change.” On the other hand, we normally use effect as a noun, and it means “the result or consequence of a change.”

Consider a simple scenario: You go for a walk in the rain and get wet. The rain affects you. The effect of the rain is that you get wet.

When to Use Affect

If the word you’re using is a verb, it’s most likely affect:

Everyone has the power to affect people around them.

We use affects as the present tense form of the verb:

It’s a problem that affects the elderly.

We use affected as the past tense form:

Her inspiring speech affected my mood positively.

And we use affecting as the present continuous form of the verb:

The hot sun is affecting the temperature of the lake.

When to Use Effect

If the word you need is a noun, effect is the right choice:

Her inspiring speech had the intended effect.

We can use effects as the plural form of the noun: 

They studied the treatment’s effects on the elderly.

The film and theater industries also commonly use effects:

That movie had some great special effects.

Exceptions to the Rules

Nothing is as simple as it seems, and the difference between affect and effect is an example of this. Sometimes, the noun–verb distinction between effect and affect doesn’t apply. 

We sometimes use affect as a noun to refer to an emotional state or response. It can mean the appearance of emotion through body language, which is common in psychology:

A facial affect can be a smile, a frown, a scrunched nose, or furrowed eyebrows.

The plural form of the noun affect is affects, and a good example is given by Shakespeare:

For every man with his affects is born.

We can use affected as an adjective meaning artificial or not genuine:

He spoke in an affected manner.

The word’s adjective form, affecting, means something that evokes a strong emotional response:

It was a very affecting play.

To further complicate matters, we use effect occasionally as a verb that means to make [something] happen:

We can effect positive social change.

As a verb in the present tense form, we can use effects:

We will see if the new law effects change.

Effected is the past tense of the verb:

Their previous actions effected change.

Finally, we use effecting as the present continuous form:

They will be remembered for their work in effecting change.

How to Remember the Difference Between Affect and Effect

Try not to get confused by the exceptions to the rules! Most of the time, all you need to do is check whether you’re using the word as a noun or as a verb. 

The word raven is a handy acronym to help you remember the difference between affect and effect:

R = Remember,

A = Affect is a

V = Verb, and

E = Effect is a

N = Noun

Becoming a Proofreader

If you’d like an opportunity to master the difference between affect and effect and learn more about homophones and other tricky parts of English grammar, our courses can help.

If you’re interested in a freelance career as a proofreader or editor, sign up for a free trial and see how our comprehensive training can prepare you for an exciting new career.

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If you’re conducting research or editing an academic text, you may come across a work that’s been translated from a different language. It’s important to know how to cite these sources correctly, both in the text and on the reference page. Keep reading to learn more about how to cite translated works in APA style.

How to Cite Translated Works on a Reference Page

First things first – when you’re dealing with a translated work, create the reference list entry in the language you’re writing/editing in. For example, if a source has been translated from Spanish to English and you’re writing the paper in English, write the reference list entry in English as well.

In the entry, you should give credit to the translator or translators by including their name/s followed by the abbreviation “Trans.”. Include the phrase “Original work published [year of the original publication]” in parentheses at the end of the reference. 

These standards apply to all translated works, such as journal articles, books, and poems. To get an idea of what this looks like in practice, let’s take a look at a few examples:

A book: Smith, J. (1997). The psychology of pizza (L. Cooke, Trans.). American Psychological Association. (Original work published 1980)

A chapter in an edited book: Smith, J. (1997). What’s the best pizza topping? (J. Doe, Trans.). In L. Jones (Ed.), An in-depth study of pizza (pp. 2–15). American Psychological Association. (Original work published 1980)

A journal article: Smith, J. (1997). A study of the psychology of pizza (J. Doe & K. Moe, Trans.). The Restaurant Journal, 18(1), 2–10. https://doi.org/10.1139/030271325 (Original work published 1980)

How to Cite a Work With the Same Editor and Translator

When the editor is also the translator of a work, include their name and roles in parentheses after the title. For example:

Smith, J. (1997). The psychology of pizza (J. Doe, Ed. & Trans.). American Psychological Association. (Original work published 1980)

In-Text Citations

For in-text citations, cite the work as you usually would but include both the original publication date and the date of the republished translation. Be sure to cite the earlier year first and use a slash to separate the years. For example:

Parenthetical citation: “Pepperoni is the superior pizza topping” (Smith, 1980/1997).

Narrative citation: Smith (1980/1997) argues that pepperoni is the superior pizza topping.

Knowadays Courses

If you’re interested in learning more about citing sources in APA style or how to edit academic texts, consider our Becoming A Proofreader and Becoming An Editor courses. We’ll teach you what you need to know about proofreading and editing academic works, as well as what to look for in APA and other popular referencing styles. Sign up for a free trial and get started today!

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What an Effective Title Should Include

An effective academic title should introduce the paper’s content in as few words as possible. It should also give an indication of the paper’s argument. Usually between 10 and 15 words in length, an academic title often comes in the form of a phrase:

The Quest of Identity: Haitian Literature in the 20th Century
What’s Love? Marriage and Divorce in Victorian England
TikTok Teenagers and the Effects of Social Media on American Youth

To capture the reader’s attention and summarize the content succinctly, an academic title should include a hook, key terms, and focus terms.

Hook

The first goal of an academic title is to catch the reader’s attention. The hook should be a creative phrase – no longer than four words – that provides just enough information to pique the reader’s curiosity and invite them to continue reading:

The Quest of Identity…
What’s Love?…
TikTok Teenagers…

As an editor, you can advise your clients to employ literary devices such as alliteration, metaphors, and personification. The hook could also include a cultural reference, an allusion to a sense, or a relevant quote.

Key Terms

After an attention-grabbing hook, you should provide the reader with general information about the paper. Key terms describe what the academic paper is about, and they can be taken directly from the scope of the project. They introduce the content, theories, and arguments that make up the bulk of the paper:

…Haitian Literature…
…Marriage and Divorce…
…the Effects of Social Media…

When constructing the key-term segment of the title, ask your client what the main idea of their research is.

Focus Terms

Once you’ve figured out your key terms, the next step is to make the title as specific as possible. Use focus terms to give the reader more information, such as what time period, geographic scope, or demographic the paper covers:

…in the 20th Century
…in Victorian England
…on American Youth

To help your client narrow down their focus terms, ask them to think about the “who” and “when” of their paper.

Words and Phrases to Avoid

Academic titles should be as succinct as possible for the reader’s sake. Get rid of vague expressions and non-specific openings – only words and phrases that add meaning should make the cut:

✘ Code Red: Investigations on the Avian Flu Outbreak in South Dakota
✔ Code Red: Avian Flu Outbreak in South Dakota

In your client’s work, look out for these phrases that don’t contribute meaning to a title:

• Study of…
• Report on…
• Results on…
• Investigations of…
• Analysis of…
• An Observation of…

Professional Editing

We hope this guide will help you assist clients in formulating effective academic titles. If you’re curious about becoming an editor, check out our Proofreader and Editor Course Bundle, which provides thorough instruction on professional proofreading and editing. If you want to learn more before buying, you can try either course for free.

The post Titles in Academic Writing appeared first on Knowadays.

APA style, for instance, recommends writing out numbers under 10 as words and using numerals for larger numbers. But Chicago style recommends writing out numbers up to and including 100. And MLA style recommends writing out any number that can be written as one or two words. All of these styles, moreover, include plenty of exceptions based on how and where numbers are used (e.g., APA style always uses numerals for time expressions, even for numbers under ten).

This variation is why it is vital to check your client’s style guide as a proofreader! But what do you do when your client doesn’t have a style guide? Or if their style guide doesn’t provide guidance on how to present numbers in the text? To help you decide when numbers should be written out as words and when they should be written with numerals, we’ve compiled a few helpful guidelines below.

Writing Numbers: Words or Numerals?

If your client does not have a style guide, the most important thing, as ever, is to ensure a clear, consistent style is used. But there are also some helpful rules of thumb that you might want to draw on. For instance, we recommend the following as a starting point:

• Write out whole ordinal and cardinal numbers under 10 as words.
• Write whole ordinal and cardinal numbers 10 and above as numerals.

We can also pick out some broad guidelines for specific contexts where exceptions may apply. For example, most style guides would recommend using numerals in the following situations:

• Mathematical and statistical expressions.
• Decimal numbers (e.g., 2.5, 0.16) and mixed fractions (e.g., 2 ¾).
• Measurements in technical and scientific writing.
• Addresses and street names (e.g., 35 New Street, 81 5^th Street).
• Years (e.g., 1968, not nineteen sixty-eight).
• Proper names that include numerals (e.g., 20th Century Studios).

And most style guides suggest using words in the following contexts:

• When numbers occur at the start of a sentence.
• Inexact casual and idiomatic uses (e.g., I told him a hundred times).
• Proper names that present numbers as words (e.g., Fifth Avenue).

These guidelines can provide a basis for ensuring numbers are used clearly and consistently in your client’s work. However, you may also need to consider variations on these rules, since whether numbers are best written as words or numerals may depend on the context. In the rest of this post, we will look at some key considerations in this respect.

Large Numbers

Large round numbers are often written as just words (e.g., two thousand, one million). This is because they are usually easier to identify as words than as numerals: e.g., 1,000,000 and 10,000,000 look similar written down at a glance, so readers could get such numbers confused, but the terms one million and ten million are more obviously distinct.

However, it is also acceptable to mix numerals and words in these cases, particularly when discussing millions, billions, and so on (e.g., 5 billion). And it may even be necessary to avoid awkward phrasing when a large number includes a decimal (e.g., 5.2 billion).

Remember, though, that these guidelines only apply to approximate or round numbers. Large exact numbers should always be written as numerals (e.g., 1,248,103).

Fractions and Percentages

Fractions and percentages are most often written with numerals, especially in mathematical contexts. And mixed fractions (e.g., 2 ¾) and complex fractions are almost always written as numerals.

However, simple fractions can also be written out as words. This is especially common when they are used casually or inexactly:

He ate almost ½ of the cake in one sitting. ✘

He ate almost half of the cake in one sitting. ✔

And while percentages should always be written as numerals when accompanied by the % symbol, there is room for variation when used alongside the word per cent or percent:

The process is currently five % complete. ✘

The process is currently 5% complete. ✔

The findings show that 48 percent of people agree. ✔

Our research examined eight percent of the responses. ✔

If your client doesn’t have a style guide, then, all you’ll need to do is check that fractions and percentages are expressed clearly and consistently.

Measurements and Currency

We mentioned above that measurements are usually expressed as numerals in scientific and technical writing. In addition, most style guides recommend using numerals whenever numbers are used alongside abbreviated units of measurement:

The experiment used eight mm mounting threads. ✘

The experiment used 8 mm mounting threads. ✔

In other contexts, though, there is room for variation. For example, if a unit of measurement is written out in full, it is typically fine to use either numerals or words to express the accompanying value:

We went on a twelve-mile walk yesterday. ✔

We went on a 12-mile walk yesterday. ✔

The fabric strip is five centimeters long. ✔

The fabric strip is 5 centimeters long. ✔

Whether to present such numbers as words or numerals therefore depends on what is clearest and most suitable in context (and what will be consistent with the rest of the document).

Similar guidelines can be applied to currency. In other words, amounts of money should always be written with numerals when used alongside a symbol. But it is generally fine to use either numerals or words when the currency is written out as words. For example:

It cost me $45. ✔

It cost me forty-five dollars. ✔

I only have five dollars right now. ✔

I only have 5 dollars right now. ✔

Again, the most appropriate form will depend on what is clearest in context and whether it is consistent with the rest of the document (e.g., if the author has typically written out numbers under 10 as words, then it would make more sense to say five dollars than 5 dollars).

Times and Dates

Numerals are commonly used in times and dates. For example:

The meeting begins at 11:15 a.m.

The final deadline is September 12, 2022.

In most cases, moreover, numerals will be the clearest way of expressing these things. But, as ever, there are situations in which using words may be equally acceptable. When writing times, for example, it is common to use words alongside the term “o’clock”:

We’ll meet at one o’clock on Thursday.

And dates can be written using just numerals, just words, or a mix of both:

The final deadline is September 12, 2022.

The final deadline is 9/12/2022.

The final deadline is September twelfth, 2022.

We typically recommend using numerals for the date and year but writing the month as a word for the optimal combination of brevity and clarity, especially if a purely numerical format may be unclear (e.g., 9/12/2022 reads as September 12 for a US audience, but it could be read as December 9 by people who are accustomed to the UK date format).

However, as ever, the key factors here when proofreading are clarity and consistency. And as long as the usage works in context, times and dates can be presented with either words or numerals.

Decades and Centuries

Like individual years, decades are usually presented in numerals when written out in full:

This was common in the nineteen seventies. ✘

This was common in the 1970s. ✔

However, decades can be presented as words or numerals when they are abbreviated to exclude the century:

This was common in the seventies. ✔

This was common in the ‘70s. ✔

And centuries can be written using either numerals or words:

The 20th century was a time of great change. ✔

The twentieth century was a time of great change. ✔

Other than when a decade is written out in full, then, there is room for flexibility here. And, as a proofreader, your main concern will be ensuring clarity and consistency in these cases.

Starting a Sentence with a Numeral

As mentioned near the start of this post, most style guides recommend avoiding numerals at the start of a sentence. But what should you do if you see a sentence that starts with a numeral?

One option is to write it out as a word instead. For instance:

52 kittens were in the basket. ✘

Fifty-two kittens were in the basket. ✔

Another option is to rephrase the sentence so it no longer starts with a number. This can be especially helpful when writing out the number as words would be awkward (e.g., large complex numbers and decimals):

4.85 people on average in each group scored full marks. ✘

On average, 4.85 people in each group scored full marks. ✔

There may also be occasions when starting a sentence with a numeral is the best option available (e.g., if rephrasing or writing the number out in full would both be awkward). Generally, though, it is better to correct or flag numerals at the start of sentences where possible.

Consistency within Passages and Sentences

Another common reason for bending the rules about writing numbers is to maintain consistency within a sentence or passage of text. For example:

The first test involved only five participants, but the second included 25.

Here, we have two numbers in a single sentence. The first (five) is written as a word. The second (25) is written as a numeral. This is not necessarily a problem, and some style guides recommend this approach. However, both numbers refer to the participants in a study. And since these are equivalent uses, many style guides would recommend using a consistent style for the numbers to make this clearer and enable comparison.

In such situations, it may therefore make sense to switch to whichever form will be clearest for both usages. And in most cases, this will mean using numerals consistently:

The first test involved only 5 participants, but the second included 25.

This isn’t to say that numbers in a sentence always have to be consistent. In fact, sometimes it helps to use numerals for one category of numbers and words for another. For instance:

Five participants were 15 years old or younger, while the other twenty were over 16.

Here, for example, we use numerals for the ages of participants, but we use words for the number of participants. This helps to ensure that the different types of numbers are distinct.

So, while consistency is usually helpful when multiple numbers appear in a single sentence or passage, clarity is also a factor. And whether you need to make a change to ensure consistency (or to vary how numbers are written) will depend on which approach is clearest.

Becoming a Proofreader

We hope that you’ve found the guidelines above useful, but keep in mind that they are only guidelines! There is a lot of room for variation here. And if your client is using a style guide, that should be your first point of reference for how numbers should be presented.

If you want more in-depth information about the English language and how proofreading works, though, why not try our Becoming A Proofreader course? It teaches you everything you need to know to begin or develop your proofreading career. And with a free trial available, you can see how Becoming A Proofreader can help you today.

The post Proofreading Tips: When Should You Write Out Numbers in Full? appeared first on Knowadays.

But what does plagiarism look like in the context of business writing? And how do you address it? In this guide, we’ll take you through the basics.

What Is Plagiarism in Business Writing?

Plagiarism occurs when a writer intentionally or unintentionally copies someone else’s work, data, or ideas and passes them off as their own. In business writing, this can manifest in various ways.

In formal business writing (e.g., business plans and reports), you may find that a client has copied words or information from another source without an appropriate citation. And assuming that the document is only intended for internal use, this may not seem problematic.

However, even if the consequences aren’t as obviously negative as with academic or literary fraud, it is still worth highlighting passages that could be interpreted as plagiarism in formal business writing.

If nothing else, presenting a document that contains plagiarized text or information could make your client look unprofessional or suggest that they don’t fully understand what they’re writing about. And this could have serious repercussions for the author’s career.

In marketing materials and other commercial content, plagiarism may have more severe consequences. For example, if a business attempts to copy a turn of phrase associated with another brand or even entire passages of text from a competitor’s website, it could:

• Undermine the company’s credibility and lead to customers losing trust in their products, services, or expertise in their industry.
• Negatively impact SEO because search engines value unique content.
• Hinder attempts to differentiate your client’s company from its competitors.
• Lead to legal issues related to copying of trademarked or copyrighted material.

For these reasons, it’s important to highlight potential cases of plagiarism for your clients if you spot anything suspicious in business writing.

How to Spot Plagiarism

Plagiarism in business writing can be hard to identify. The only sure sign is recognizing something as having been copied from elsewhere (e.g., if you have seen it used in another source), which is obviously not possible in most cases. However, there are some things you can look for when proofreading a business document that could indicate plagiarism:

• Inconsistent formatting – If a section of your client’s document is formatted differently from the rest of the work, this may suggest it has been copied and pasted from another source.
• A shift in style or tone – A sudden change in how information is presented, such as a different perspective or level of formality, can be a sign that your client is copying another source.
• Statistics, figures, or quotations presented without a source – Figures in business reports, financial documents, and other formal business writing should be properly attributed.

If you spot any of these, it may be worth searching online to see if the passage in question occurs elsewhere.

What to Do About Plagiarism in Business Writing

As a proofreader, you are not strictly required to correct plagiarism. However, you can still assist your client if you spot potential plagiarism.

The first thing you should do in this situation is politely comment to note your concerns. You might also want to note where the information or text seems to have come from (e.g., by including a link to a website or article and specifying the passage in question).

However, be careful not to make it sound like you’re accusing your client of anything malicious. Direct accusations of plagiarism are rarely received well! It is better to say that “There seem to be some similarities between X and Y here” than to say, “You have copied X from Y!”

You can then offer some advice on how to address the problem. The best solution will usually depend on the situation at hand.

In a business report, for example, you might need to gently urge your client to provide an appropriate citation and place direct quotations within quote marks (or paraphrase the quoted material in their own words).

With marketing materials, such as a product description, citations aren’t likely to be relevant. The best option, then, might be to suggest that the client rewrites the problem content in their own words (or possibly even draft a revised passage if that is within the limits of your brief).

Becoming a Proofreader

Are you interested in a career in business proofreading? With a dedicated business module, our Becoming A Proofreader course is a great place to start. Try it for free today!

The post Proofreading Tips: Plagiarism in Business Writing appeared first on Knowadays.