If you’re not sure how to cite a play by Shakespeare accurately, don’t worry! In this blog post, we’ll set out the key rules for citing Shakespeare’s plays in some of the major referencing systems:

• MLA 
• APA 
• Chicago 
• MHRA 

Keep reading to learn more.

How to Cite Shakespeare in MLA Style

MLA style recommends citing Shakespeare’s plays using act, scene, and line numbers rather than standard page numbers. For example:

A Midsummer Night’s Dream addresses love early on (Shakespeare 1.1.234–235).

However, if your client has cited more than one of Shakespeare’s plays, they will need to replace the author’s name with the source title. This is because MLA referencing doesn’t use a date of publication in citations, so the title helps readers distinguish between sources by the same author.

In addition, for Shakespeare’s plays, MLA style suggests a series of standard abbreviations for use in citations. Your client should use these rather than shortening titles themselves:

Shakespeare touched on this theme many times (e.g., MND 1.1.234–235; TN 1.1.1; Rom. 1.1.181), suggesting the nature of love was a point of fascination for him.

The passage above, for example, cites A Midsummer Night’s Dream (MND), Twelfth Night (TN), and Romeo and Juliet (Rom.), with the abbreviations keeping the citations succinct.

Meanwhile, the format for Shakespeare’s plays in an MLA “Works Cited” list will depend on how your client accessed the source (e.g., online or a print anthology). However, entries should always include full publication details for the version cited in the document.

How to Cite Shakespeare in APA Style

APA referencing uses its author–date citations when citing Shakespeare. The main issue to look out for is the date, which should include two dates separated by a forward slash:

Romeo and Juliet (Shakespeare, 1597/2021) is the most famous love story ever written.

The first year here (1597) refers to the year the play was originally published. The second (2021) is the year of publication for the specific edition referenced. In this respect, Shakespeare plays follow the standard rules for reprinted works in APA referencing.

The other key point relates to quotations and paraphrases from Shakespeare plays, which should be cited with act, scene, and line numbers rather than page numbers:

It is at this point we encounter the famous line from the balcony scene: “O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?” (Shakespeare, 1597/2021, 2.2.35).

This shows that the quote comes from act 2, scene 2, line 35 of Romeo and Juliet.

In an APA reference list, meanwhile, Shakespeare plays are typically cited as reprinted books (i.e., with an original date of publication at the end of the reference). Make sure to check your client includes the edition cited, as line numbers can vary between versions.

How to Cite Shakespeare in Chicago Style

Chicago style varies depending on the version of this system used (i.e., footnote citations or parenthetical author–date citations). However, there are two things that always apply:

• The Chicago Manual of Style suggests using act, scene, and line numbers when citing classic English plays, including Shakespeare plays.
• Writers should include the edition of the text used for clarity on line numbers.

In the footnote version of Chicago referencing, then, the first footnote might look like this:

1. William Shakespeare, The Tempest, ed. Alden T. Vaughan and Virginia Mason Vaughan (London: Bloomsbury, 2011), 1.1.20–26. References are to act, scene, and line.

Here, for example, the citation is for lines 20 to 26 in act 1, scene 1 of The Tempest. The full publication information and the sentence “References are to act, scene, and line” would be only required on the first reference, though: subsequent citations can typically be shortened.

A Chicago author–date citation of the same passage, meanwhile, would look like this:

We see this early on in The Tempest (Shakespeare 2011, 1.1.20–26).

Both versions of Chicago style also require the full publication details for the version cited in the bibliography/reference list, so make sure to check if this information is present.

How to Cite Shakespeare in MHRA Style

In the MHRA referencing system, Shakespeare’s plays should be cited using the guidelines for citing plays and other long works (i.e., classic works with established subdivisions such as scenes, books, cantos, and similar). In practice, this means:

• The edition used should be included in the first footnote citation.
• Citations should include act, scene, and line numbers (not page numbers).
• Act numbers should be given in Roman numbers (small capitals).
• Scenes and line numbers should be given in Arabic numerals.

In practice, then, the first citation of a Shakespeare play would look like this:

1. William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice, ed. by Peter Holland (London: Penguin Classics, 2015), ɪɪ. 3. 15.

For subsequent citations of the same play, MHRA suggests shortening the footnote to just the author’s name and the pinpoint citation (still given with act, scene, and line numbers):

2. Shakespeare, ᴠ. 1. 18–25.

However, if there could be doubt about the play in question (e.g., if your client is citing more than one Shakespeare play in a single document), footnotes should give the play name instead:

1. William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice, ed. by Peter Holland (London: Penguin Classics, 2015), ɪɪ. 3. 15.

2. William Shakespeare, The Tempest, ed. by Alden T. Vaughan and Virginia Mason Vaughan (London: Bloomsbury, 2011), ɪ. 1. 20–26.

3. The Merchant of Venice, ᴠ. 1. 18–25.

In the bibliography entry, meanwhile, your client should include the full publication details.

Reference Variations

We’ve offered some brief guidelines on how to present Shakespeare plays in reference lists for the systems above, but this can depend on how your client has accessed the source.

For example, a student using APA referencing might access a Shakespeare play online and reference it as a website. As long as all the relevant source information is given, this is usually fine. Your role will be to check references for clarity and consistency.

Nevertheless, if you’re not sure about the reference format for a Shakespeare play in a specific system, make sure to look it up (either online or in the relevant style guide).

Becoming A Proofreader

For more information about proofreading academic writing and referencing styles, try the Becoming A Proofreader course. Sign up for a free trial today to find out more.

The post A Guide to Citing Shakespeare in Academic Writing appeared first on Knowadays.

In this blog post, we’ll take a look at:

• What makes a source credible
• What the three types of sources are
• Why it’s important to use credible sources
• How to identify a credible source
• What to do if you spot unreliable sources in your client’s writing

What Is a Credible Source?

While the specific definition of credibility can differ between institutions and subjects, generally speaking, a credible source is presented objectively, backed up by evidence, and written by a reputable author or authors.

Types of Sources

Many types of sources exist, and they generally fall into three categories: primary, secondary, and tertiary.

Why Is It Important to Use Credible Sources?

It’s important to use credible sources because authors should strive to provide the reader with the best information possible to support their ideas.

If someone is reading an article and finds an erroneous piece of information or data, they may not bother to continue reading. As a result, the whole piece of work – and the author – may be discredited.

The Role of the Editor

As an editor, your job is to revise a document to ensure clarity, concision, and a proper academic tone.

While you may want to note issues with source reliability for academic clients, be careful about providing feedback on student work! Offering substantive advice on the content of work intended for assessment will often be considered academic plagiarism.

You should, therefore, check whether your client’s writing is subject to plagiarism guidelines. For student work, you can flag a source as unreliable. But you wouldn’t usually suggest an alternate source to use in its place because by doing so, you may be stepping over the line into plagiarism.

How to Tell Whether a Source Is Credible

To check whether a source your client has cited is credible, you should ask yourself a number of questions:

• Who is the author? Ideally, the author should be an authority on the subject area. That is, they should possess a related qualification or be known well within their professional field. And they will usually have a history of publishing similar work. If you can’t find relevant information about the author, view the source with skepticism.
• Who is the intended audience? Academics or specialists in a given field will usually be the intended audience of a credible source. Sources aimed at a general audience may be fine, especially if they’re clearly cited, but a more suitable scholarly or industry source will usually be available.
• Where is it from? The best sources are usually from scholarly publications. Academic journals, for instance, are peer-reviewed, meaning experts in the field have approved the articles within. By comparison, an article on a blog or a Wikipedia page may have been reviewed less rigorously. And articles on news sites or in newspapers may depend on how trustworthy the individual publication is.
• When was it published? For certain topics, recent sources are usually better. In the sciences, for example, it’s better to focus on the most recent research available because this is likely to be up-to-date.
• Does it provide supporting documentation? A reliable source will provide evidence to back up its claims. This documentation may consist of data in tables, graphs, or illustrations, especially for scientific research.
• Does it cite its own sources? Reliable scholarly writing should cite its own sources. Does the article or book your client is using include a reference list, bibliography, or citations? If not, it may not be a suitable source for academic writing.
• Is it free from bias? A source may be biased if the author, the publication, or other involved parties stand to benefit from the conclusions it draws. For example, if a company that manufactures plastic issues a report on the impact of plastic waste on the environment, the piece may not be reliable because the company has a vested interest in the results.

These guidelines are context-dependent, so what determines the credibility of a source can vary depending on the subject. Often, a credible source is just one that experts in that field would agree is valid. In an essay about Charles Dickens, for example, his works will be primary sources. And the reliability of Great Expectations as a source in this scenario is not undermined by the work’s lack of citations or its 1861 publication date.

You can use a number of frameworks to critically evaluate a source. The CRAAP test is a popular method.

However, when an author is citing a source not to discuss it directly but to back up a claim they’re making (e.g., citing a scientific paper to provide background for an experiment), then reliability is pertinent. And if a source doesn’t fit the criteria outlined above, it may not be reliable enough to cite in an academic paper. Should this situation arise, you’ll need to flag the issue with your client.

How to Know Whether an Online Source Is Credible

Online sources are now common in academic writing, but they often lack clear publication dates and authors, and they may be subject to less rigorous review than print sources. This situation can make it hard to determine whether your client has cited a credible web source.

While you won’t always be able to tell whether an online source is credible just by looking at its URL, the following domain extensions can give you some idea of how trustworthy a web source is:

• .edu (academic institutions) – University and college websites are generally geared toward a scholarly audience. However, you should check that content is authoritative, up to date, and unbiased.
• .org (charity or not-for-profit organizations) – Many of these sites will be informative, but they may be biased toward a certain agenda.
• .gov/.gov.uk/etc. (government-run sites or resources) – While government sites are usually reliable and authoritative, they may be influenced by political bias.
• .com/.co.uk/etc. (commercial sites, usually owned by a company) – Commercial sites can provide useful information, but they are not usually scholarly sources, so they should be used carefully. Keep in mind that many will have an explicit marketing or promotional purpose.

Wikipedia is not the most reliable source. The problem is that anyone can add to or edit the information there, so the data could be flawed or even completely incorrect.

You can use Wikipedia to get an overview or simplification of a topic. Information on a given topic can also include links to primary and/or secondary sources, which you can find at the bottom of the page. It’s possible to use Wikipedia, with caution, as a tertiary source.

Becoming An Editor

If you’d like to learn more about academic editing and proofreading, try Becoming A Proofreader and Becoming An Editor. As a graduate of both, you’ll be able to spot common errors, clarify arguments, and edit for tone and readability. Plus, buy both courses together and you can save 15%!

Get started with a free trial today.

The post How to Spot a Credible Source appeared first on Knowadays.

If you’re conducting research or editing an academic text, you may come across a work that’s been translated from a different language. It’s important to know how to cite these sources correctly, both in the text and on the reference page. Keep reading to learn more about how to cite translated works in APA style.

How to Cite Translated Works on a Reference Page

First things first – when you’re dealing with a translated work, create the reference list entry in the language you’re writing/editing in. For example, if a source has been translated from Spanish to English and you’re writing the paper in English, write the reference list entry in English as well.

In the entry, you should give credit to the translator or translators by including their name/s followed by the abbreviation “Trans.”. Include the phrase “Original work published [year of the original publication]” in parentheses at the end of the reference. 

These standards apply to all translated works, such as journal articles, books, and poems. To get an idea of what this looks like in practice, let’s take a look at a few examples:

A book: Smith, J. (1997). The psychology of pizza (L. Cooke, Trans.). American Psychological Association. (Original work published 1980)

A chapter in an edited book: Smith, J. (1997). What’s the best pizza topping? (J. Doe, Trans.). In L. Jones (Ed.), An in-depth study of pizza (pp. 2–15). American Psychological Association. (Original work published 1980)

A journal article: Smith, J. (1997). A study of the psychology of pizza (J. Doe & K. Moe, Trans.). The Restaurant Journal, 18(1), 2–10. https://doi.org/10.1139/030271325 (Original work published 1980)

How to Cite a Work With the Same Editor and Translator

When the editor is also the translator of a work, include their name and roles in parentheses after the title. For example:

Smith, J. (1997). The psychology of pizza (J. Doe, Ed. & Trans.). American Psychological Association. (Original work published 1980)

In-Text Citations

For in-text citations, cite the work as you usually would but include both the original publication date and the date of the republished translation. Be sure to cite the earlier year first and use a slash to separate the years. For example:

Parenthetical citation: “Pepperoni is the superior pizza topping” (Smith, 1980/1997).

Narrative citation: Smith (1980/1997) argues that pepperoni is the superior pizza topping.

Knowadays Courses

If you’re interested in learning more about citing sources in APA style or how to edit academic texts, consider our Becoming A Proofreader and Becoming An Editor courses. We’ll teach you what you need to know about proofreading and editing academic works, as well as what to look for in APA and other popular referencing styles. Sign up for a free trial and get started today!

The post How to Cite Translated Works in APA Style appeared first on Knowadays.

Here, we set out the rules for citing religious texts in APA, Chicago, MHRA, and MLA style.

Sacred Texts in APA Style

APA style largely adheres to its standard author–date format when citing religious texts. However, for any reprinted text, the citation will include two dates:

The translation of the King James Bible (1769/2021) is especially notable.

The first of these dates refers to the year the version cited was originally published, while the second refers to the specific edition being cited. Additionally, for quotes from a sacred text with established divisions, citations should use these divisions rather than page numbers:

At this point in the text, John is reported to state that “perfect love casteth out fear” (King James Bible, 1769/2021, 1 John 4:18).

Here, for instance, we give the book, plus the chapter and verse separated by a colon.

In the reference list, meanwhile, most sacred texts will be listed using the title in place of an author’s name (since sacred texts do not usually have an attributed author):

King James Bible. (2021). King James Bible Online. https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/ (Original work published 1769)

However, APA style has slightly different rules for annotated editions of sacred texts. In these cases, you should cite the editor(s) in the text and use them in the first position of the reference:

1. Yusuf Ali (ed.). (2000). The Holy Qur’an: Text, Translation and Commentary. Kitab Bhavan. (Original work published 1938)

Here, for example, we start the reference with the name of the editor/translator.

Sacred Texts in Chicago Style

For Jewish and Christian scriptures, Chicago style has a few key rules:

• References are only required in the text, not in the bibliography or reference list.
• Authors should identify the version of the text cited in full on the first citation (although works aimed at specialists can use abbreviations instead).
• Biblical references should use the abbreviated book name, followed by the chapter and verse numbers separated by a colon, not page numbers.

This replaces the conventional source information used for Chicago citations. In the footnote and bibliography version of Chicago referencing, for instance, the first citation of chapter 17, verse 20 from the Book of Matthew would typically look like this:

1. Matt. 17:20 (New International Version).

Whereas the first citation of the same in the author–date version would look like this:

Mustard also provides a metaphor for faith (Matt. 17:20, New International Version).

For other sacred texts, Chicago style suggests adapting the rules above as appropriate (e.g., using the conventional divisions for the text in question, such as chapter or passage numbers, rather than page numbers). More specifically, it also says:

• Citations of transliterated texts should indicate the name of the version or translator.
• The Qur’an (or Koran) should be written in roman type (not italics), and citations of its sections should use arabic numerals and colons (e.g., Qur’an 19:17–21).
• Collective terms as the Vedas or the Upanishads are normally capitalized and written in roman script, but names of particular parts within such collections should be italicized (e.g., the Rig-Veda or the Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad).

Keep these in mind if you see such texts referenced in your client’s work.

The Bible in MHRA Style

The only specific advice on referencing religious texts in the MHRA style guide refers to the Bible, where it says that Biblical verses should be cited using the book name, roman numerals for book numbers (where relevant), and arabic numerals for chapter and verse numbers.

In addition, MHRA style differs in how it punctuates chapter and verse numbers, using a full stop and a space between the two (rather than a colon like the styles above). For instance:

1 Genesis 6. 14

2  ɪɪ Samuel 17. 1–3

However, many publishers and academic institutions, particularly those that regularly deal with holy texts, will have additional instructions for such citations (e.g., specifying the version either in the first note or in the bibliography; using similar conventions for other holy texts). It is therefore worth checking with your client if they’re writing about religious texts using MHRA style.

Sacred Texts in MLA Style

MLA style has a couple of simple rules to remember for referencing religious texts:

• On the first citation, give the version of the text cited in italics (although generic mentions of religious text, such as the Bible or Qur’an, do not need to be italicized).
• Where possible, use conventional divisions rather than page numbers for pinpoint citations (e.g., for the Bible, authors should use the book, chapter, and verse).

For example, the first citation of a copy of the Bhagavad Gita might read as follows:

We are urged to strive for “freedom from reaction” (The Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 3, Text 4).

In subsequent citations, the version of the text cited can be omitted:

We must also “conquer this insatiable enemy known as lust” (Chapter 3, Text 43).

Books of the Bible, meanwhile, may be shortened in using the MLA-approved abbreviations:

In this epistle, the reader is urged to “stand firm in the faith” (New Jerusalem Bible, 1 Cor. 16:13).

In your client’s Works Cited list, sacred texts should be cited using the appropriate format for how they were accessed (e.g., book or website). However, since most religious texts don’t have an attributed author, Works Cited list entries will need to start with the version cited instead (i.e., the same version as given in the first citation). For instance:

The Bhagavad Gita. Translated and introduced by Eknath Easwaran, Nilgiri Press, 2007.

The New Jerusalem Bible. Catholic Online, https://www.catholic.org/bible/book.php. Accessed 8 June 2021.

Becoming A Proofreader

For more information on referencing styles and other aspects of academic proofreading, try our Becoming A Proofreader course. Sign up for your free trial today to find out more.

The post A Guide to Referencing and Religious Texts appeared first on Knowadays.

Here, then, we’ll offer some advice for proofreaders on the following:

• Where APA style suggests using title case and sentence case capitalization.
• How APA style formats titles of other works in different parts of a text.

Read on for more on titles below, or check out this post for tips on punctuation in APA style.

Title Case and Sentence Case in APA Style

In academic work, authors often need to mention titles of other works. This could be to discuss them directly (e.g., in a paper analyzing another thinker’s work). Or it could be just to reference them or mention them in passing (e.g., adding an article in a reference list).

However, APA style uses two types of capitalization in different places:

1. Title case is used for titles of other works in the main text of a document, as well as for the title of your client’s paper (and all section titles, subheadings, table names, and figure names in their work). This means capitalizing the first letters of:

• The first word in titles and subtitles.
• All major words (i.e., nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs).
• All words four or more letters long, including conjunctions and prepositions.
• Any proper nouns or proper names in titles.

2. Sentence case is used for titles of other works in an APA reference list, along with table column headings within your client’s paper. This means capitalizing only:

• The first word in titles and subtitles.
• Any proper nouns or proper names in titles.

The same title can thus be capitalized differently in different places. As a proofreader, then, you will need to check your client has used the right capitalization style in the right places. Any errors in this respect will need correcting in line with APA rules.

Formatting Titles in APA

APA style also uses multiple approaches to presenting the titles of other works: italics, quotation marks, and roman type (i.e., a standard, non-italic typeface). The correct choice will depend on the type of work referenced and where the title appears in the text:

• Italics – APA style uses italics for the titles of standalone works (e.g., books, journals, newspapers, television series) in both the main text and in reference lists.
• Quotation marks – For shorter works that are part of a whole (e.g., book chapters, articles from journals or magazines, or episodes from a television show), APA style suggests placing titles within quotation marks in the main text only.
• Roman script – In an APA reference list, titles of shorter works should be given in roman type (i.e., without quotation marks or italics). The same applies for names of series of books or films in the main text of a document (e.g., the Star Wars movies).

The tricky one here is titles of shorter works, since they vary depending on where they are used (i.e., in quote marks in the main text, but in roman type in reference lists).

If you’re not sure what format a title requires from your client’s text alone (e.g., it doesn’t indicate if it is a book or an article in the main text and you don’t have the reference list), you can look it up online, but it’s usually safer to leave a comment asking your client to check.

Examples of Titles in APA Style

To show you how the above would look in practice, we’ll give some examples below.

For a standalone work, such as a book, in the main text of a document using APA style, a correctly formatted title would be presented in title case and italics like this:

We see this in A. E. Houseman’s The Name and Nature of Poetry (1933/2006).

In the reference list, meanwhile, the title would keep the italics but use sentence case:

Housman, A. E. (2006). The name and nature of poetry. The Housman Society. (Original work published 1933)

However, for a work that is part of a larger whole, such as a journal article, the style differs between the main text and reference list. In the main text, titles of works like these should be presented in title case and within quotation marks. For example:

Adam M. Croom (2015) suggests poetry therapy as a treatment for a variety of ailments in “The Practice of Poetry and the Psychology of Well-Being.”

But in the reference list, authors should use sentence case and roman type:

Croom, A. M. (2015). The practice of poetry and the psychology of well-being. Journal of Poetry Therapy, 28(1), 21–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/08893675.2015.980133

If you see titles that don’t follow these guidelines and your client has asked you to use APA style while proofreading, either make a correction or leave a comment as appropriate.

Becoming A Proofreader

If you want to learn more about style guides and academic writing so you can work as a freelance proofreader and editor, try a free trial of our Becoming A Proofreader course.

The post Proofreading Tips: Titles of Other Works in APA Style appeared first on Knowadays.

It’s important to be aware of these rules so you know what to look for when proofreading. Here, then, we’re going to look at how to present titles of other works in AP style, including:

• How to capitalize titles of other works in AP style.
• When to place titles of other works in quotation marks.
• How to approach titles of non-English works in AP style.

For more on all of the above, read our full guide below.

Title Capitalization in AP Style

AP style suggests capitalizing all words in titles of other works except:

• The definite and indefinite articles (i.e., “the,” “a,” and “an”).
• Prepositions with three or fewer letters.
• Conjunctions with three or fewer letters.

However, there are some cases when these words are capitalized in AP style, too.

The most common is when one of the words above is the first or last word in a title:

A Guide to Adulthood: Why We Should All Grow Up

But AP style also suggests capitalizing these terms when they are part of a phrasal verb, or when it is a “to” before an infinitive. These can be hard to spot, so errors are common.

For instance, compare the use of “to” in the following titles:

How To Dance at Wedding Parties

A Journey to the Beyond

In the first, “to” precedes the infinitive verb “dance,” so it is capitalized (in line with AP style). But the second “to” is just a standard preposition, indicating a destination, so it wouldn’t need correction. Keep an eye on how words are used in titles when proofreading.

When to Place Titles in Quotation Marks

While many style guides use italics for some titles and quotation marks for others, the AP Stylebook recommends placing all titles of other works in quotation marks. For instance, if an author mentions a book in a piece of AP style writing, they would present it as follows:

We spoke to Ramirez about his new book, “How to Use Quotation Marks.”

When proofreading, then, check that titles are presented in quotation marks (and that your client has used the same style of quotation mark consistently for both titles and regular quotations). If following AP style closely, this will require double quotation marks (since AP style focuses on US English). However, some writers will adapt this to fit their chosen dialect.

In addition, some works don’t require quotation marks around their titles, including:

• Holy books like the Quran, the Bible, and the Torah.
• Reference works such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, and catalogs.
• Apps, websites, software, and games (e.g., Facebook, Pages, Angry Birds).
• Sculptures (e.g., Venus de Milo, Perseus With the Head of Medusa).
• Musical works identified by a sequence number (e.g., Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9).

For these works, titles should be in roman type without quotation marks.

Foreign Titles in Translation

In AP style, writers are asked to give the English translation for names of foreign works unless the work in question is commonly known by its original title. For instance:

Fellini’s “La Dolce Vita” is well known, but fewer have seen “Nights of Cabiria.”

Here, we can use La Dolce Vita because the film was released under that name in English-speaking countries. However, we use the English title for Nights of Cabiria – originally titled Le Notti di Cabiria – because the original would be unfamiliar to most readers.

Thus, if you see an unfamiliar non-English title in a document you’re proofreading, you may want to check whether it is better known by a translated title and note this for your client.

Non-English Titles of Musical Works

The exception to the non-English title rule is musical works, where writers should use the language they were sung in. For example, AP style suggests using “The Valkyrie” for the well-known Wagner opera piece if sung in English, but “Die Walküre” if it is sung in German.

This can be hard to correct as a proofreader unless you know the details of the performance! However, you can leave a note for your client if you think something is wrong.

Even this exception has an exception, though: Titles of musical works in Slavic languages (e.g., Russian) are always presented in English, no matter the language they were sung in.

Learn How to Proofread Effectively

Our Becoming A Proofreader course covers everything you need to know to start work as a freelance proofreader, including key details of AP style and other style guides. If this sounds like something you would like to try, sign up for our free trial today!

The post Titles of Other Works in AP Style appeared first on Knowadays.

Read on below to find out what to look for when proofreading a document.

Basic Date Format in MHRA Style

The basic date format in MHRA style is “12 January 1997.” Note that:

• The name of the month is spelled out in full.
• It doesn’t use an ordinal suffix (e.g., 12th, 22nd, 31st) after the date.
• There is no punctuation between the elements.

The only exception is using a comma to separate the day of the week from a date:

The message is dated Friday, 13 October 2011.

However, proofreaders should also pay attention to the client’s country and chosen dialect. MHRA style uses a UK-style date format by default (i.e., day-month-year). But if your client is using American English, they may want to adapt this for a US date format (i.e., month-day-year). And this will mean adding a comma between the date and year:

The message is dated Friday, October 13, 2011.

You should also make sure date formats are used consistently when proofreading.

Date Ranges

MHRA style permits using an en dash to indicate a range of numbers or time span. This can include dates (e.g., 1990–94 or June–August 1966). Alternatively, authors can write out spans using “from” and “to” (e.g., from June to August 1966).

However, MHRA style does not permit mixing these approaches. As such, combining “from” with a dash when writing out a date range will always be incorrect:

The policy applied from 1922 to 1938. ✓

The policy applied from 1922–1938. ✗

If you see this in a document, make a correction based on the context.

Eras and Small Caps (AD, BC, CE, BCE)

Historical writing will often include era abbreviations such as AD, BC, CE, BCE, and AH with dates to clarify the year intended. The rules for using these in MHRA style are:

• Give era abbreviations in small capitals.
• Do not add punctuation between the letters in era abbreviations.

The style guide also sets out rules for positioning these terms:

• When used with a year, AD should come first.
• BC, CE, BCE, and AH should all appear after years.

You can see this difference in the examples below:

However, if discussing centuries, all these abbreviations follow the word “century”:

Keep an eye on how these abbreviations are formatted and positioned.

Decades and Centuries

MHRA style also has a few rules for writing out decades and centuries.

Decades should typically be written as numerals followed by an “s” (but no apostrophe):

The 1920s were a turbulent time.

This was an issue throughout the 1880s.

Centuries, on the other hand, are typically written out in full:

This changed in the nineteenth century.

Fifteenth-century fashion was notable for several reasons.

Note, too, that centuries are hyphenated when used adjectivally.

Approximate Dates

Finally, for approximate dates, MHRA style uses the abbreviation “c.” before the year:

Born c. 673, Bede’s early life…

This is short for “circa,” a Latin term meaning “approximately.”

Becoming A Proofreader

For more advice on everything you need to know to work as a proofreader, from spelling and grammar to different writing styles, sign up for a free trial of our course today.

The post A Quick Guide to Dates in MHRA Style appeared first on Knowadays.

Here, we look at some key aspects of IEEE style that proofreaders should know.

Introducing and Using Acronyms

In most respects, IEEE style follows the conventional rules for introducing acronyms and initialisms. This means writers should introduce these abbreviations by placing them in parentheses after the full terminology the first time they appear:

This is relayed via the main distribution frame (MDF).

After this, they can use the abbreviation in isolation. However, IEEE style also has some specific rules for using acronyms that proofreaders should know:

• Unlike some style guides, IEEE style suggests introducing and defining acronyms even if they are widely used or familiar terms.
• If an acronym appears in the abstract for a paper as well as the main text, it should be introduced and defined in both places.
• Acronyms do not need to be defined in the main text of a paper if they appear in a list of abbreviations before the introduction (i.e., a “Nomenclature” section).
• Pluralize acronyms with a small “s” and no apostrophe.

Keep an eye out for these issues when proofreading technical writing.

Contractions in Technical Text

IEEE style follows the standard convention of avoiding contractions in formal or technical writing. When proofreading, then, you would correct words such as “don’t” and “can’t” to use their full forms (i.e., “do not” and “cannot” in these cases).

However, there are exceptions to this rule for technical terms. For instance, “don’t-care conditions” are a way of simplifying logic circuits. And since this is a technical term rather than a standard contraction, you would not need to correct this word.

It is easy to overlook cases like this unless you are familiar with the subject matter at hand. But the key is to look out for any unusual uses of contractions and to check before correcting them (e.g., looking for the terminology online or leaving a comment for the client).

Pluralizing Measurements and Years

As well as the guideline on pluralizing acronyms above, IEEE style offers advice on forming other plurals. Potentially tricky cases to look out for include:

1. Units of measurement should be pluralized with an “s” where relevant (e.g., three mils, not three mil; or 20 kbits/s, not 20 kbit/s).
2. Plurals of calendar years do not need an apostrophe (e.g., 1990s, not 1990’s). Nor do plurals of numbers (e.g., 5s and 7s, not 5’s and 7’s).
3. Use an apostrophe plus “s” for singular plurals (e.g., The engine’s design…) or just an apostrophe if the base word ends in an “s” (e.g., Burns’ theory states…).

If your client is using IEEE style and you spot an incorrect pluralization, make a correction. If it is a repeated error, leave a comment to explain the correct style.

Hyphens and Dashes

Standard IEEE rules for use of hyphens and dashes are as follows:

• Hyphens – Used for compound words (i.e., compound modifiers before the word being modified and other terms conventionally spelled with a hyphen). The most important thing is checking that hyphens are used consistently.
• En dashes – Used to indicate a range of values (e.g., 30–45 mm) except when the range is preceded by “from” (e.g., From 30 to 45 mm, not From 30–45 mm). Can also be used to indicate a connection between two terms (e.g., voltage–current curve) or in chemical abbreviations (e.g., Ni–Al–Si).
• Em dashes – Used to set aside parenthetical information in a sentence.

Make sure that your client’s writing follows these guidelines consistently.

Trademark Symbols

IEEE style recommends against using the ™ (trademark) and ® (registered trademark) symbols. If required, though, authors can add a footnote saying “Trademarked” or “Registered trademark” the first time they use a trademarked name in their work.

Becoming A Proofreader

To learn more about proofreading, including the standard conventions of technical and academic writing, try the Becoming A Proofreader course for free today.

The post A Proofreader’s Introduction to IEEE Style appeared first on Knowadays.

What Are Stephanus Numbers?

As well as being the man who gave us “platonic” love, Plato was a Greek philosopher who wrote about everything from metaphysics to the morality of art. And because of this wide-ranging influence, students and academics around the world still refer to his work today.

Most scholarly editions of Plato’s works include “Stephanus numbers”. These are named for Henricus Stephanus, who published an influential edition of Plato’s collected works in 1578.

Like the Bekker numbers used in works by Aristotle, these numbers are consistent across different editions of Plato’s works. Writers can therefore cite these numbers – in place of a standard citation – and know readers will have the same numbering in their version.

As a result, Stephanus numbers are the standard way of citing Plato in academic writing.

How Does Stephanus Numbering Work?

Stephanus pagination is based on the divisions in the 1578 three-volume edition of Plato’s works mentioned above. You can see how they look in the right margin of the page below.

Stephanus numbering in a Platonic dialogue.

The number here refers to a page from the Stephanus edition, which was numbered continuously, so later works have higher numbers. Each page was divided into five sections, labeled “a” to “e” (the “a” section above starts with the number, so it is unlabeled).

You can therefore cite Plato by giving the name of the work, a number, and a letter:

The notion of circularity appears again in relation to the dead (Phaedo 72a).

Here, we’re citing the Phaedo. The “72” refers to the page the passage appears on in the Stephanus edition, and “a” shows us it is the first section on this page. Anyone with an edition of the Phaedo with Stephanus numbers would then be able to find this exact passage.

Some writers will include a line number as well (e.g., by counting down from the first line in the section). And some prefer to give a volume number rather than a title of the cited work. But the principle – citing the text based on the Stephanus pagination – remains the same.

Proofreading Plato Citations

From a proofreading perspective, the most important thing to know is that Stephanus numbers are often used alongside another citation system. For instance, an academic writer might use APA referencing for most sources, but Stephanus numbers to cite Plato.

As long as you know what Stephanus pagination is, you won’t mistake it for an accidental inconsistency. Nevertheless, you may want to leave a comment for your client if:

• You find any clear omissions or errors (e.g., missing citations or glaring inconsistencies).
• Your client is using a style guide that recommends a different method for citing works by Plato, or that suggests a specific style for citing Stephanus numbers.

Finally, keep in mind that Stephanus numbers don’t affect how Plato’s works should be listed in a bibliography. You may therefore need to check your client’s style guide on this issue.

Works Without Stephanus Pagination

You may sometimes find Plato cited without Stephanus numbers. This may be because your client’s version text lacks this pagination. Or it could just be a decision they have made.

In these cases, you could leave a note saying that Stephanus numbers are the standard method for citing Plato. However, your main role as a proofreader is – as always – to check that citations are clear and consistent according to the client’s chosen system.

Becoming A Proofreader

Want to learn more about academic referencing? Our Becoming A Proofreader course explains all the basics. Sign up for a free trial today, and start a new career in proofreading.

The post Academic Proofreading: A Quick Guide to Stephanus Numbers appeared first on Knowadays.

In this post, we’ll explain the basics of dates and times in MLA style.

Dates in the Main Text

If an author uses a date in the main text of a document, MLA style suggests writing them out in full using either of the following formats:

• Day-Month-Year (e.g., 12 April 2021)
• Month-Day-Year (e.g., April 12, 2021)

The latter is most common in American English, while the former is used in other English-speaking countries. But MLA style offers a choice as long as one style is used consistently.

If your client does use the Month-Day-Year format mid-sentence, the MLA Handbook recommends using a comma after the year as well as before it:

July 18, 1848, is an important date in the history of cricket.

As a proofreader, then, you may need to keep an eye on how dates are punctuated.

Dates in an MLA Works Cited List

You client may also need to include dates for some sources in their works cited list (i.e., the reference list at the end of a document). The rules for dates here are a little different, though.

Most notably, dates in an MLA works cited list should be written in the Day-Month-Year format to minimize comma usage. This applies even if your client has used the Month-Day-Year format in the main text of their work. Nor does it matter which dialect your client is using.

MLA style also permits abbreviating months with more than four letters in the works cited list:

This can help keep entries in the works cited list clear and concise. From a proofreading perspective, you should also check that month abbreviations are used consistently.

Times in MLA Style

MLA style has less to say on times than dates, but it does have a few key principles:

• Use either a twelve-hour or twenty-four-hour clock consistently.
• When using a twelve-hour clock, include “a.m.” or “p.m.” for clarity. Make sure to leave a space between the time and “a.m.” or “p.m.” when these abbreviations are used.
• Include time zone information when provided.

These rules apply both to times mentioned in the body of your client’s work and to times included in works cited list entries (e.g., the time of posting for a comment on a blog post).

Becoming A Proofreader

For more advice on proofreading, academic and otherwise, check out the full Becoming A Proofreader course. Sign up for a free trial today to find out more.

The post A Quick Guide to Dates and Times in MLA Style appeared first on Knowadays.